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This OpenTour is product the Fall 2024 American Environmental History course taught by postdoctoral fellow Stephanie Bryan in the Department of History and Sociology at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Each tour stop provides insight into various industries that were an important part of Atlanta around the turn of the twentieth century.

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Entry by Georgia Tech student Ziyao Yin, October 2024.

The Atlanta Trunk Factory was established in the late 19th century, during a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization in the United States. This paper analysis the trunk factory from three angles: manufacturing materials and technologies, impact of Railroads in Atlanta, and interactions with other industries.

1. Manufacturing Materials and Technologies for Trunks

The Atlanta Trunk Factory produced a wide variety of travel trunks, suitcases, and other types of luggage using different materials. The development of the textile industry (Williams, 2007) played an important role in this process; by 1900, the textile industry had become one of the major industries in Atlanta and the entire state of Georgia, which also facilitated the growth of various luggage products. Additionally, according to advertisements from Lieberman's Trunk Factory of that time, the manufacturing materials included brass trimming, imitation alligator skin, cowhide, and leather. The sourcing and processing of these materials reflect the involvement of multiple upstream industries. For example, the brass trimming factories relied on support from the metalworking industry, and the procurement of this material promoted connections between Atlanta and other mining areas. Imitation alligator skin is a synthetic material that typically involves support from the chemical processing industry and the textile sector. Cowhide and leather come from livestock farming, particularly from rural ranches. The connection between the Atlanta Trunk Factory and rural ranches highlights the complementarity of urban-rural economies, as these surrounding industries provided raw materials to urban factories, thereby promoting the interconnected development of urban and rural industries.

2. Impact of Railroads on the Development of the Trunk Factory and Urban-Rural Connections

The Atlanta Trunk Factory is closely linked to the economic development of its surroundings, especially through the procurement of raw materials and the flow of labor. As an important railroad hub in the southern United States, Atlanta's expansion of railroads facilitated urban-rural connections and the expansion of regional Markets (Storey, 2006).

The trunk factory relied on raw materials such as leather provided by rural ranches, and the establishment of railroads enabled these resources to enter the city through the railroad network, supporting industrial production. Additionally, during the industrialization process, the development of the trunk factory depended on various upstream industries, such as textile and metalworking factories. The labor demands of these factories led to an influx of rural labor into the cities seeking job opportunities in factories. As part of the manufacturing sector, the Atlanta Trunk Factory likely employed workers from the countryside, reinforcing economic connections between urban and rural areas.

With the expansion of the railroad network in the late 19th century and the growing middle and upper classes, more and more people began using trains for distant travel, while continuing to rely on carriages for local transportation. Merchants, salespeople, and tourists all required durable luggage to carry their belongings. As a railroad hub, Atlanta saw a significant increase in travel traffic, further stimulating the demand for luggage. Thus, the products of the trunk factory may also be distributed to surrounding areas and even nationwide through railroads.

3. Interaction of the Trunk Factory with Other Industries and Market Demand

The Atlanta Trunk Factory not only depended on rural raw materials and the demands of railroad travelers but also had close ties to other industries in the city. Located in the center of Atlanta, the trunk factory was surrounded by hotels and other service facilities that contributed to the growing demand for luggage. Nearby hotels, such as the Grant House, catered to outside merchants and travelers who needed luggage to carry their personal belongings. In the late 19th century, as Atlanta’s railroad transportation flourished, the rise of hotels and other service industries drove the demand for luggage. Merchants and salespeople traveled between cities, and their journeys and business activities directly spurred the prosperity of the luggage industry.

Conclusion

As one of the important manufacturing sectors from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, the Atlanta Trunk Factory relied not only on the industrial base of the city and the prosperity of railroad travel but also formed complex economic and environmental connections through the procurement of rural raw materials, attraction of labor, and interaction with other urban industries.

References

Advertisement of Lieberman's Trunk Factory. Atlanta Constitution, July 11, 1900, p. 2. Courtesy of Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/969464453/.

\"The Grant House: An Excellent Hotel Refurnished Throughout. Located on Whitehall, the Principal Retail Dry Good Street in Atlanta.\" Atlanta Constitution, Sept. 15, 1895. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/grant-house/docview/495291914/se-2.

Storey, S. (2006). Railroads. In New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved Sep. 14, 2018, from https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/business-economy/railroads/.

Williams, A. (2007). Textile Industry. In New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved Oct. 28, 2021, from https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/business-economy/textile-industry/.

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The development of the textile industry (Williams, 2007) played an important role in this process; by 1900, the textile industry had become one of the major industries in Atlanta and the entire state of Georgia, which also facilitated the growth of various luggage products. Additionally, according to advertisements from Lieberman's Trunk Factory of that time, the manufacturing materials included brass trimming, imitation alligator skin, cowhide, and leather. The sourcing and processing of these materials reflect the involvement of multiple upstream industries. For example, the brass trimming factories relied on support from the metalworking industry, and the procurement of this material promoted connections between Atlanta and other mining areas. Imitation alligator skin is a synthetic material that typically involves support from the chemical processing industry and the textile sector. Cowhide and leather come from livestock farming, particularly from rural ranches. The connection between the Atlanta Trunk Factory and rural ranches highlights the complementarity of urban-rural economies, as these surrounding industries provided raw materials to urban factories, thereby promoting the interconnected development of urban and rural industries.2. Impact of Railroads on the Development of the Trunk Factory and Urban-Rural ConnectionsThe Atlanta Trunk Factory is closely linked to the economic development of its surroundings, especially through the procurement of raw materials and the flow of labor. As an important railroad hub in the southern United States, Atlanta's expansion of railroads facilitated urban-rural connections and the expansion of regional Markets (Storey, 2006).The trunk factory relied on raw materials such as leather provided by rural ranches, and the establishment of railroads enabled these resources to enter the city through the railroad network, supporting industrial production. Additionally, during the industrialization process, the development of the trunk factory depended on various upstream industries, such as textile and metalworking factories. The labor demands of these factories led to an influx of rural labor into the cities seeking job opportunities in factories. As part of the manufacturing sector, the Atlanta Trunk Factory likely employed workers from the countryside, reinforcing economic connections between urban and rural areas. With the expansion of the railroad network in the late 19th century and the growing middle and upper classes, more and more people began using trains for distant travel, while continuing to rely on carriages for local transportation. Merchants, salespeople, and tourists all required durable luggage to carry their belongings. As a railroad hub, Atlanta saw a significant increase in travel traffic, further stimulating the demand for luggage. Thus, the products of the trunk factory may also be distributed to surrounding areas and even nationwide through railroads.3. Interaction of the Trunk Factory with Other Industries and Market DemandThe Atlanta Trunk Factory not only depended on rural raw materials and the demands of railroad travelers but also had close ties to other industries in the city. Located in the center of Atlanta, the trunk factory was surrounded by hotels and other service facilities that contributed to the growing demand for luggage. Nearby hotels, such as the Grant House, catered to outside merchants and travelers who needed luggage to carry their personal belongings. In the late 19th century, as Atlanta’s railroad transportation flourished, the rise of hotels and other service industries drove the demand for luggage. Merchants and salespeople traveled between cities, and their journeys and business activities directly spurred the prosperity of the luggage industry. ConclusionAs one of the important manufacturing sectors from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, the Atlanta Trunk Factory relied not only on the industrial base of the city and the prosperity of railroad travel but also formed complex economic and environmental connections through the procurement of rural raw materials, attraction of labor, and interaction with other urban industries. ReferencesAdvertisement of Lieberman's Trunk Factory. Atlanta Constitution, July 11, 1900, p. 2. Courtesy of Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/969464453/.\"The Grant House: An Excellent Hotel Refurnished Throughout. Located on Whitehall, the Principal Retail Dry Good Street in Atlanta.\" Atlanta Constitution, Sept. 15, 1895. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/grant-house/docview/495291914/se-2.Storey, S. (2006). Railroads. In New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved Sep. 14, 2018, from https://www. georgiaencyclopedia. org/articles/business-economy/railroads/.Williams, A. (2007). Textile Industry. In New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved Oct. 28, 2021, from https://www. georgiaencyclopedia. org/articles/business-economy/textile-industry/.","manufacturing-travel-atlanta-trunk-factory",[126,127,114],{"_72":109,"_122":123,"_124":125},"Manufacturing Travel: Atlanta Trunk Factory","stop","video_embed","video_poster",[],"caption","Detail of Sheet 9, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=15&st=image&r=-0.037,0.353,0.415,0.227,0. Map is in the public domain. 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Entry by Dr. Stephanie N. Bryan (course instructor), September 2024.

At the corner of Hunter Street (now Martin Luther King Jr. Drive) and Butler Street (now Jesse Hill Jr. Drive) once stood the three-story brick building of a drugmaker known as the Swift Specific Company, or S.S.S. Though the building was erected in 1883, the company had been incorporated several years earlier in 1879. The Swift Specific Company was one of many American pharmaceuticals that experienced a boom in the decades following the Civil War. Industrialization enabled mass production of patent medicines, while railroad expansion provided access to distant markets. The affordability and availability of commercialized remedies drew demand from both urban and rural populations. Pre-made medicines also appealed to physicians who had previously relied on locally gathered plants for their practices.

\n\n

At their Atlanta-based laboratory, the Swift Specific Company developed and manufactured what they claimed to be a cure-all remedy. From nervousness to rheumatism, blood poison, malaria, eczema, skin cancer, ulcers, poison oak, syphilis, catarrh (mucus), scrofula (tuberculosis) and other ailments, the S.S.S. brand promised “relief for suffering humanity.” The company often advertised their ingredients as being derived from Georgia’s forests and fields. The southern Appalachian Mountains, Luke Manget explains in Ginseng Diggers, “were fast becoming a reliable source of crude vegetable drugs to pharmaceutical companies and patent medicine makers.” S.S.S. tonic allegedly contained “swamp sumac from Alabama, Queen's Delight from South Georgia, and sumac from North Georgia.” The lack of government regulation enabled companies to keep their formulas secret and so the extent to which commercial remedies derived from native botanicals is unclear.

\n\n

Patent medicines were often high in alcoholic content and sometimes fortified with morphine, opium, or cocaine. In 1886, a widely publicized newspaper advertisement suggested Swift Specific’s use of “over $100,000 worth of alcohol annually in the manufacture of their medicine.” Such ingredients certainly presented health risks to consumers. This did not stop companies such as Swift Specific from launching extensive national advertising campaigns to distribute their products throughout the U.S. and Europe. Initially, the landscape provided a medium for advertising as the company painted rocks and walls, tacked signs on barns, and set boards along roadsides. Advertising soon encompassed traveling salesmen, trade cards, treatises, almanacs, and pamphlets with racist stories. Newspapers offered an effective sales channel. The Swift Specific Company published full-page advertisements filled with testimonials of questionable veracity. By 1926, the company claimed to have done “business with the public through no less than 4,430 newspapers.” To afford such advertising attests to the company's financial success.

\n\n

Like other pharmaceutical companies, Swift Specific’s advertising campaign drew on tropes, such as the magical “Medicine Man,” to appeal to buyers. Enslaved Black people and white settlers certainly acquired knowledge of medicinal plants and practices from Native Americans. This provided a selling point for company founder Charles Swift, who claimed to have purchased his formula from plantation owner Irwin Dennard of Perry, Georgia. Swift’s advertisements frequently presented a narrative that not only rooted the origins of their remedy with the Creeks, but that also made enslaved Black labor a critical component of its reproduction. Such imagery, Matthew Chase argues in Cures and Curses, “served to not only conjure additional legitimacy to these patent medicines as part of indigenous authority, but also reinforced the modern sensibilities of the white consumer.”

\n\n

The Swift Specific Company’s advertisements also crafted a storyline of progress—contrasting the “washpot factory” in rural Perry to urban Atlanta’s large laboratory equipped with “engines, machinery, and a host of employees.” \nAccording to Henry Hart, Swift Specific Company’s sales “grew steadily during the late nineteenth century, boomed in the prosperous 1920s, and survived the Depression.” Though the original building at the intersection of Hunter and Butler no longer stands, the company is still headquartered in Atlanta and is a fully owned subsidiary of Pfeiffer Pharmaceuticals, Inc. According to their website, the S.S.S. Company is “the oldest American non-prescription drug manufacturer.” Since Congress passed the Food and Drugs Act of 1906, pharmaceuticals of course have undergone stricter regulations to ensure consumer safety. The wide range of S.S.S. products sold today provide a window into the history of medicine around the turn-of-the-twentieth century as it shifted from a rural to a commercial realm.

References

Advertisement. Savannah (GA) Morning News, Feb. 14, 1886, p. 3. Georgia Historic Newspapers, https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn82015137/1886-02-14/ed-1/seq-3/.

Chase, Matthew. “Cures and Curses: A History of Pharmaceutical Advertising in America.” University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences Library. https://library.usa.edu/cures-curses-exhibit.

Cunningham, Maria. “There’s a Cure for That: Historic medicines and Cure-alls in America.” Oregon Health and Science University. October 2023. https://www.ohsu.edu/historical-collections-archives/theres-cure-historic-medicines-and-cure-alls-america.

“The Food and Drug Administration: The Continued History of Drug Advertising.” Weill Cornell Medicine Samuel J. Wood Library. https://library.weill.cornell.edu/about-us/snake%C2%A0oil%C2%A0-social%C2%A0media-drug-advertising-your-health/food-and-drug-administration-continued.

“History of Patent Medicine.” Hagley Museum, https://www.hagley.org/research/digital-exhibits/history-patent-medicine.

“Items of Interest.” Fredonia (KS) Democrat. Jan. 22, 1886. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/423746709/.

Manget, Luke. A History of Root and Herb Gathering in Appalachia (University Press of Kentucky, 2022).

Swift Specific Company. “A Georgia ‘Possum,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1895). Duke University Libraries, https://repository.duke.edu/dc/eaa/A0430.

Swift Specific Company. “The Georgia Watermelon,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1891). Wellcome Collection, https://wellcomecollection.org/works/gdkgaztc/items.

Swift Specific Company. “The Turkey Shootin’: Our Blood is Life, for sar’tin: S.S.S. for the Blood,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1889). Internet Archive, Wellcome Library, https://archive.org/details/b30479356/.

Swift Specific Company. “Uanita’s Secret” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1888). Internet Archive, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://archive.org/details/101226353.nlm.nih.gov.

S.S.S. Company Website. https://ssspharmaceuticals.com/. \n

Womack, Ann Talbot Brandon and Farris Wade Womack, “The Charles Thomas Swift Story.” Rev. Dec. 2010. https://freepages.rootsweb.com/~fww64/genealogy/charles_thomas_swift_story.html

",33.74877551359503,-84.38595930443803,[220,221,222,223,224],"Entry by Dr. Stephanie N. Bryan (course instructor), September 2024.At the corner of Hunter Street (now Martin Luther King Jr. Drive) and Butler Street (now Jesse Hill Jr. Drive) once stood the three-story brick building of a drugmaker known as the Swift Specific Company, or S. S.S. Though the building was erected in 1883, the company had been incorporated several years earlier in 1879. The Swift Specific Company was one of many American pharmaceuticals that experienced a boom in the decades following the Civil War. Industrialization enabled mass production of patent medicines, while railroad expansion provided access to distant markets. The affordability and availability of commercialized remedies drew demand from both urban and rural populations. Pre-made medicines also appealed to physicians who had previously relied on locally gathered plants for their practices. \n\nAt their Atlanta-based laboratory, the Swift Specific Company developed and manufactured what they claimed to be a cure-all remedy. From nervousness to rheumatism, blood poison, malaria, eczema, skin cancer, ulcers, poison oak, syphilis, catarrh (mucus), scrofula (tuberculosis) and other ailments, the S. S.S. brand promised “relief for suffering humanity.” The company often advertised their ingredients as being derived from Georgia’s forests and fields. The southern Appalachian Mountains, Luke Manget explains in Ginseng Diggers, “were fast becoming a reliable source of crude vegetable drugs to pharmaceutical companies and patent medicine makers.” S. S.S. tonic allegedly contained “swamp sumac from Alabama, Queen's Delight from South Georgia, and sumac from North Georgia.” The lack of government regulation enabled companies to keep their formulas secret and so the extent to which commercial remedies derived from native botanicals is unclear. \n\nPatent medicines were often high in alcoholic content and sometimes fortified with morphine, opium, or cocaine. In 1886, a widely publicized newspaper advertisement suggested Swift Specific’s use of “over $100,000 worth of alcohol annually in the manufacture of their medicine.” Such ingredients certainly presented health risks to consumers. This did not stop companies such as Swift Specific from launching extensive national advertising campaigns to distribute their products throughout the U. S. and Europe. Initially, the landscape provided a medium for advertising as the company painted rocks and walls, tacked signs on barns, and set boards along roadsides. Advertising soon encompassed traveling salesmen, trade cards, treatises, almanacs, and pamphlets with racist stories. Newspapers offered an effective sales channel. The Swift Specific Company published full-page advertisements filled with testimonials of questionable veracity. By 1926, the company claimed to have done “business with the public through no less than 4,430 newspapers.” To afford such advertising attests to the company's financial success.\n\nLike other pharmaceutical companies, Swift Specific’s advertising campaign drew on tropes, such as the magical “Medicine Man,” to appeal to buyers. Enslaved Black people and white settlers certainly acquired knowledge of medicinal plants and practices from Native Americans. This provided a selling point for company founder Charles Swift, who claimed to have purchased his formula from plantation owner Irwin Dennard of Perry, Georgia. Swift’s advertisements frequently presented a narrative that not only rooted the origins of their remedy with the Creeks, but that also made enslaved Black labor a critical component of its reproduction. Such imagery, Matthew Chase argues in Cures and Curses, “served to not only conjure additional legitimacy to these patent medicines as part of indigenous authority, but also reinforced the modern sensibilities of the white consumer.”\n\nThe Swift Specific Company’s advertisements also crafted a storyline of progress—contrasting the “washpot factory” in rural Perry to urban Atlanta’s large laboratory equipped with “engines, machinery, and a host of employees.” \nAccording to Henry Hart, Swift Specific Company’s sales “grew steadily during the late nineteenth century, boomed in the prosperous 1920s, and survived the Depression.” Though the original building at the intersection of Hunter and Butler no longer stands, the company is still headquartered in Atlanta and is a fully owned subsidiary of Pfeiffer Pharmaceuticals, Inc. According to their website, the S. S.S. Company is “the oldest American non-prescription drug manufacturer.” Since Congress passed the Food and Drugs Act of 1906, pharmaceuticals of course have undergone stricter regulations to ensure consumer safety. The wide range of S. S.S. products sold today provide a window into the history of medicine around the turn-of-the-twentieth century as it shifted from a rural to a commercial realm. References Advertisement. Savannah (GA) Morning News, Feb. 14, 1886, p. 3. Georgia Historic Newspapers, https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo. usg. edu/lccn/sn82015137/1886-02-14/ed-1/seq-3/. Chase, Matthew. “Cures and Curses: A History of Pharmaceutical Advertising in America.” University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences Library. https://library. usa. edu/cures-curses-exhibit. Cunningham, Maria. “There’s a Cure for That: Historic medicines and Cure-alls in America.” Oregon Health and Science University. October 2023. https://www. ohsu. edu/historical-collections-archives/theres-cure-historic-medicines-and-cure-alls-america. “The Food and Drug Administration: The Continued History of Drug Advertising.” Weill Cornell Medicine Samuel J. Wood Library. https://library. weill. cornell. edu/about-us/snake%C2%A0oil%C2%A0-social%C2%A0media-drug-advertising-your-health/food-and-drug-administration-continued.“History of Patent Medicine.” Hagley Museum, https://www. hagley. org/research/digital-exhibits/history-patent-medicine. “Items of Interest.” Fredonia (KS) Democrat. Jan. 22, 1886. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/423746709/. Manget, Luke. A History of Root and Herb Gathering in Appalachia (University Press of Kentucky, 2022).Swift Specific Company. “A Georgia ‘Possum,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1895). Duke University Libraries, https://repository. duke. edu/dc/eaa/A0430. Swift Specific Company. “The Georgia Watermelon,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1891). Wellcome Collection, https://wellcomecollection. org/works/gdkgaztc/items. Swift Specific Company. “The Turkey Shootin’: Our Blood is Life, for sar’tin: S. S.S. for the Blood,” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1889). Internet Archive, Wellcome Library, https://archive. org/details/b30479356/. Swift Specific Company. “Uanita’s Secret” (Atlanta, GA: Swift Specific Company, 1888). Internet Archive, U. S. National Library of Medicine, https://archive. org/details/101226353.nlm. nih. gov. S. S.S. Company Website. https://ssspharmaceuticals. com/. \nWomack, Ann Talbot Brandon and Farris Wade Womack, “The Charles Thomas Swift Story.” Rev. Dec. 2010. https://freepages. rootsweb. com/~fww64/genealogy/charles_thomas_swift_story. html",[213,214,215,216,217,218,219,198],{"_72":109,"_122":211,"_124":212},[],"Detail of Sheet 51, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=59&st=image&r=-0.42,-0.005,1.218,0.91,0. Map is in the public domain.","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/3d19ec9ektv6anr2mk5lw759odke?variant=desktop","new-stop-1726616837673","swift-specific-company","swift-specific-company-s-laboratory-manufacturing","swift-specific-company-s-laboratory","manufacturing-healthswift-specific-company-s-laboratory","manufacturing-medicine-swift-specific-company-s-laboratory","manufacturing-medicine-swift-specific-company-s-laboratory-sss",{"_93":177,"_90":23,"_122":211,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":270,"_141":271,"_35":163,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":23,"_90":177,"_122":262,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":263,"_141":264,"_35":177,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":230,"_90":163,"_122":251,"_135":252,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":253,"_141":254,"_35":238,"_144":133,"_146":255,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":256,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":238,"_90":133,"_122":239,"_135":240,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":241,"_141":242,"_35":243,"_144":133,"_146":244,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":245,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":225,"_90":145,"_122":226,"_135":227,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":228,"_141":229,"_35":230,"_144":133,"_146":231,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":232,"_72":109,"_152":-5},14,"In some of their advertisements, the Swift Specific Company used a tree to illustrate various ailments they promised to cure with their tonic. Clipping from Southern World: Journal of Industry for the Farm, Home and Workshop (Atlanta, GA), Oct. 15, 1883, p. 393. Courtesy of Georgia Historic Newspapers, https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn94058024/1883-10-15/ed-1/seq-17/.",476,"SSS_Tree_Ad.jpg",{"_153":233,"_155":234,"_157":235,"_159":236,"_161":237},15,262,349,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/n85my8rv0tfpgjmtrpp3w5vg3d58","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/n85my8rv0tfpgjmtrpp3w5vg3d58?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/n85my8rv0tfpgjmtrpp3w5vg3d58?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/n85my8rv0tfpgjmtrpp3w5vg3d58?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/n85my8rv0tfpgjmtrpp3w5vg3d58?variant=lqip",16,"The Swift Specific Company also used images of nature in its advertising to ensure consumers of the safety of their tonic and that its contents did not come “from the chemist’s shop.” Of course, the company's products were manufactured in their Atlanta laboratory and were not as \"natural\" as consumers were led to believe. Clipping from The Atlanta (GA) Constitution, Mar. 9, 1890, p. 14. Courtesy of Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/34141770/.",616,"The_Atlanta_Constitution_1890_03_09_Page_14.jpg",{"_153":246,"_155":247,"_157":248,"_159":249,"_161":250},17,246,329,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/r624xclrvrqc2u92k2czysnagx28","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/r624xclrvrqc2u92k2czysnagx28?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/r624xclrvrqc2u92k2czysnagx28?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/r624xclrvrqc2u92k2czysnagx28?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/r624xclrvrqc2u92k2czysnagx28?variant=lqip","The Swift Specific Company's Advertisements often presented racist imagery, such as this one depicting \"Uncle Remus Gathering Roots for the Manufacture of S.S.S.\" Such imagery that reinforced subservient Black labor would have appealed to southern white consumers during the postwar era. Clipping from the Columbus (GA) Enquirer-Sun, Mar. 27, 1887, p. 7. Courtesy of Georgia Historic Newspapers, https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1887-03-27/ed-1/seq-7/. ",636,"SSS_Remus.jpg",{"_153":257,"_155":258,"_157":259,"_159":260,"_161":261},256,342,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/pfyqlr6d78o0ttad671oya9x51xl","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/pfyqlr6d78o0ttad671oya9x51xl?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/pfyqlr6d78o0ttad671oya9x51xl?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/pfyqlr6d78o0ttad671oya9x51xl?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/pfyqlr6d78o0ttad671oya9x51xl?variant=lqip","Laboratory of Swift's Specific Company, 1890. Originally published in \"Atlanta, Historical, Descriptive, and Picturesque, 1890,\" (Neenah, WI: Art Publishing Company). Courtesy of Georgia State University Library, https://digitalcollections.library.gsu.edu/digital/collection/afpl/id/49/rec/7. Photograph is in the public domain.","SSS.jpg",{"_153":265,"_155":266,"_157":267,"_159":268,"_161":269},"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/nblg9yupvj6anjbgyrsnpp3kv7lf","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/nblg9yupvj6anjbgyrsnpp3kv7lf?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/nblg9yupvj6anjbgyrsnpp3kv7lf?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/nblg9yupvj6anjbgyrsnpp3kv7lf?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/nblg9yupvj6anjbgyrsnpp3kv7lf?variant=lqip","OT_Sanborn_1899_Sheet51_Crop.jpg",{"_153":272,"_155":273,"_157":274,"_159":212,"_161":275},"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/3d19ec9ektv6anr2mk5lw759odke","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/3d19ec9ektv6anr2mk5lw759odke?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/3d19ec9ektv6anr2mk5lw759odke?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/3d19ec9ektv6anr2mk5lw759odke?variant=lqip","manufacturing-cleanliness-troy-steam-laundry","Manufacturing Cleanliness: Troy Steam Laundry",{"_35":23,"_63":198,"_72":199},{"_35":163,"_63":17,"_72":336},"236 John Wesley Dobbs Ave NE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA","

Entry by Georgia Tech student Eden Long, October 2024.

\n\n

When we ponder the evolution of laundry (as we so often do), we usually begin with hand washing and jump straight to the electric washing machines we all know and use today. However, there are a few steps in between and one particular evolution of washing was the steam laundry. Steam laundries could be found in cities all across the United States beginning in the latter half of the 1800s until the electric washer replaced any need for steam powered washing machines.

\n\n

The rapidly industrializing setting of the United States harbored the need for a new form of laundry. The sheer density of people living in cities created a concentration of laundry needing cleaning never before seen. On top of this, the coal pollution found in every major city during the 19th century created an environment that made hanging clothes out to dry impossible as they would soon be dirtied by the effects of industry. This perfect storm of necessity and means that the industrial revolution boiled led to the creation of the steam laundry. Washing machines powered by boilers and steam engines would wash clothes, curtains, and any other fabric you could imagine while workers would hand clean more delicate items such as lace, collars, and cuffs.

\n\n

Steam laundries solved many problems, but they weren’t immune to the issues faced by many other industries during the time period. When looking at the Troy Steam Laundry in particular, it is obvious that their hiring patterns would not be up to the standards of today. In the photo advertisement subtitled, “This is how 'tis done”, the steam laundry boasts that they can wash anything from a “handkerchief to a circus tent”. The most damaging part of the advertisement however is in the photo itself where three children are shown washing laundry by hand. Child labor was not out of the ordinary in this era of America. The Bureau of Labor statistics finds that in 1870 at least 1 in 8 children in America were employed and by 1900 this number had increased to 1 in 5 children. Children and women were responsible for the hand cleaning of delicate items and worked in unregulated factory conditions.

\n\n

Steam laundries were largely established to address pollution caused by burning coal, but ironically, they were powered by the very same coal they sought to combat. Water was heated by burning coal to create the steam that powered the machines. Steam laundries became just another manifestation of the industrialization that rapidly grew across the country. Instead of hand washing you could send your laundry to a machine like everything else. In fact, while steam laundries emerged in Atlanta in 1880, the Troy Steam Laundry had expanded in 1897 to a full-blown factory capable of handling the growing laundry needs of Atlanta. And eventually Troy Steam Laundry was just another factory in a city full of factories and rail yards. Like many other factories, Troy Steam Laundry had its fair share of fires, break-ins, and injuries, and when electricity became widespread, Troy Steam Laundry became a relic of the steam past.

References

\"Advertisement for Troy Steam Laundry.\" Kenan Research Center. Atlanta History Center. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. http://album.atlantahistorycenter.com/cdm/ref/collection/athpc/id/2191.

\"The Industrial Revolution: Negative Effects.\" History.com. A&E Networks. Nov. 9, 2021. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. https://www.history.com/news/industrial-revolution-negative-effects.

Rankin, Jeff. \"Before Automatic Washers, Steam Laundries Relieved Drudgery.\" Monmouth Daily Review Atlas. Mar. 17, 2021. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. https://www.reviewatlas.com/story/news/history/2021/03/17/jeff-rankin-before-automatic-washers-steam-laundries-relieved-drudgery/4717084001/.

Margerison, Kenneth. \"History of Child Labor in the United States, Part 1: Little Children Working.\" Monthly Labor Review. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Jan. 2017. Accessed Oct. 17, 2024.

\"The Up-To-Date Laundry. An Old and Well-Known Business Moves into Its New Building. The Troy Steam Laundry.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 10, 1897, p. 8. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/26972879/?match=1&terms=%22the%20troy%20steam%20laundry%22.

",33.75767303907797,-84.37918899832538,[293,294,295,296],"Entry by Georgia Tech student Eden Long, October 2024.\n\nWhen we ponder the evolution of laundry (as we so often do), we usually begin with hand washing and jump straight to the electric washing machines we all know and use today. However, there are a few steps in between and one particular evolution of washing was the steam laundry. Steam laundries could be found in cities all across the United States beginning in the latter half of the 1800s until the electric washer replaced any need for steam powered washing machines.\n\nThe rapidly industrializing setting of the United States harbored the need for a new form of laundry. The sheer density of people living in cities created a concentration of laundry needing cleaning never before seen. On top of this, the coal pollution found in every major city during the 19th century created an environment that made hanging clothes out to dry impossible as they would soon be dirtied by the effects of industry. This perfect storm of necessity and means that the industrial revolution boiled led to the creation of the steam laundry. Washing machines powered by boilers and steam engines would wash clothes, curtains, and any other fabric you could imagine while workers would hand clean more delicate items such as lace, collars, and cuffs. \n\nSteam laundries solved many problems, but they weren’t immune to the issues faced by many other industries during the time period. When looking at the Troy Steam Laundry in particular, it is obvious that their hiring patterns would not be up to the standards of today. In the photo advertisement subtitled, “This is how 'tis done”, the steam laundry boasts that they can wash anything from a “handkerchief to a circus tent”. The most damaging part of the advertisement however is in the photo itself where three children are shown washing laundry by hand. Child labor was not out of the ordinary in this era of America. The Bureau of Labor statistics finds that in 1870 at least 1 in 8 children in America were employed and by 1900 this number had increased to 1 in 5 children. Children and women were responsible for the hand cleaning of delicate items and worked in unregulated factory conditions.\n\nSteam laundries were largely established to address pollution caused by burning coal, but ironically, they were powered by the very same coal they sought to combat. Water was heated by burning coal to create the steam that powered the machines. Steam laundries became just another manifestation of the industrialization that rapidly grew across the country. Instead of hand washing you could send your laundry to a machine like everything else. In fact, while steam laundries emerged in Atlanta in 1880, the Troy Steam Laundry had expanded in 1897 to a full-blown factory capable of handling the growing laundry needs of Atlanta. And eventually Troy Steam Laundry was just another factory in a city full of factories and rail yards. Like many other factories, Troy Steam Laundry had its fair share of fires, break-ins, and injuries, and when electricity became widespread, Troy Steam Laundry became a relic of the steam past. References\"Advertisement for Troy Steam Laundry.\" Kenan Research Center. Atlanta History Center. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. http://album. atlantahistorycenter. com/cdm/ref/collection/athpc/id/2191.\"The Industrial Revolution: Negative Effects.\" History. com. A&E Networks. Nov. 9, 2021. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. https://www. history. com/news/industrial-revolution-negative-effects. Rankin, Jeff. \"Before Automatic Washers, Steam Laundries Relieved Drudgery.\" Monmouth Daily Review Atlas. Mar. 17, 2021. Accessed Oct. 12, 2024. https://www. reviewatlas. com/story/news/history/2021/03/17/jeff-rankin-before-automatic-washers-steam-laundries-relieved-drudgery/4717084001/.Margerison, Kenneth. \"History of Child Labor in the United States, Part 1: Little Children Working.\" Monthly Labor Review. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Jan. 2017. Accessed Oct. 17, 2024. \"The Up-To-Date Laundry. An Old and Well-Known Business Moves into Its New Building. The Troy Steam Laundry.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 10, 1897, p. 8. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/26972879/?match=1&terms=%22the%20troy%20steam%20laundry%22.",[291,292,276],{"_72":109,"_122":289,"_124":290},[],"Detail of Sheet 44, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=52&st=image&r=-0.692,-0.113,2.384,1.307,0. Map is in the public domain.","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/06jdtm3v8a4rqhjk5f0asglx8pgs?variant=desktop","new-stop-1726628930395","manufactu",{"_93":67,"_90":23,"_122":289,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":330,"_141":331,"_35":103,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":168,"_90":177,"_122":320,"_135":252,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":321,"_141":322,"_35":310,"_144":133,"_146":323,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":324,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":310,"_90":163,"_122":311,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":312,"_141":313,"_35":314,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":297,"_90":133,"_122":298,"_135":299,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":300,"_141":301,"_35":302,"_144":145,"_146":303,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":304,"_72":109,"_152":-5},18,"Troy Steam Laundry advertisement. Courtesy of the Atlanta History Center, Kenan Research Center, Digital Collection, Item ID 2191. Image is in the Public Domain.",600,"troy1.jpeg",{"_153":305,"_155":306,"_157":307,"_159":308,"_161":309},19,295,393,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/a8nb5j9bty8nsei8rml81znrg2ji","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/a8nb5j9bty8nsei8rml81znrg2ji?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/a8nb5j9bty8nsei8rml81znrg2ji?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/a8nb5j9bty8nsei8rml81znrg2ji?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/a8nb5j9bty8nsei8rml81znrg2ji?variant=lqip",34,"Illustration of the Troy Steam Laundry Works. Published in the Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 10, 1897, p. 8. Courtesy of Newspapers.com.","The_Atlanta_Constitution_1897_10_10_Page_8_Detail2.jpg",{"_153":315,"_155":316,"_157":317,"_159":318,"_161":319},35,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/eojzudfo3ofebbr0eof7frh7z9ms","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/eojzudfo3ofebbr0eof7frh7z9ms?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/eojzudfo3ofebbr0eof7frh7z9ms?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/eojzudfo3ofebbr0eof7frh7z9ms?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/eojzudfo3ofebbr0eof7frh7z9ms?variant=lqip","Illustration of Troy Steam Laundry and Souther Dye Works, Main Office. Published in the Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 10, 1897, p. 8. Courtesy of Newspapers.com.","The_Atlanta_Constitution_1897_10_10_Page_8_Detail1.jpg",{"_153":325,"_155":326,"_157":327,"_159":328,"_161":329},254,339,"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/2ybfl07bbbi1y2fsk79q8478gwn1","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/2ybfl07bbbi1y2fsk79q8478gwn1?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/2ybfl07bbbi1y2fsk79q8478gwn1?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/2ybfl07bbbi1y2fsk79q8478gwn1?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/2ybfl07bbbi1y2fsk79q8478gwn1?variant=lqip","OT_Sanborn_1899_Sheet44.jpg",{"_153":332,"_155":333,"_157":334,"_159":290,"_161":335},"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/06jdtm3v8a4rqhjk5f0asglx8pgs","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/06jdtm3v8a4rqhjk5f0asglx8pgs?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/06jdtm3v8a4rqhjk5f0asglx8pgs?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/06jdtm3v8a4rqhjk5f0asglx8pgs?variant=lqip","Manufacturing Power: Atlanta Mule Mart",{"_35":133,"_63":276,"_72":277},{"_35":67,"_63":395,"_72":396},"190 Marietta St NW, Atlanta, GA 30313, USA","

Entry by Georgia Tech student Jabari Marsland, October 2024.

\n\n

Near the intersection of Marietta Street and Bartow Street, once stood three stables. Among them were the Brady & Miller Feed & Sales Stables, established in 1881, and Martin & Bowden’s Feed & Sale Stables, in 1897. The designs of these structures incorporated brick and iron to provide strength and fire resistance. The strategic location of these stables—along the tracks of the Western and Atlantic Railroad—helped facilitate trade and distribution throughout the southern states. Atlanta received carloads of mules and horses bred in Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Dealers purchased most of them to sell at retail prices to local sharecroppers and tenant farmers on credit in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. As demands grew, additional stables and stockyards, small and large, emerged within and on the edge of the city, some covering significant acreage. These Atlanta businesses played a major role in the sale and care of mules and horses, contributing to the city's role as a wholesale livestock market from the late nineteenth century into the early twentieth century.

\n\n

Throughout the southern states, sharecroppers and tenant farmers used mules to plant cotton. “The rapid development of such enterprises as quarrying, lumbering, orchard-making and other pursuits” increased the demand for these draught animals, explained a writer for the Atlanta Constitution on November 16, 1902. Additionally, during World War I, mules were shipped overseas to Britain to aid in transportation efforts in the war. Mule trading was not just an economic activity but also a social spectacle, with intense bidding wars, deals being struck, and sometimes conflicts or tensions arising among traders. The Great Mule Mart Drama of the 1920s was an interesting historical event involving the Atlanta Union Stockyards, in which confidential information concerning local dealers was leaked to the press, and one of the company’s incorporators faced charges of embezzlement.

\n\n

Mules remained vital for agriculture throughout the early to mid-twentieth century. Atlanta’s mule market continued to expand, even amidst the Great Depression. In 1934, the Chicago Tribune reported a dramatic increase in mule sales in Atlanta over five months. During this period, over 38,000 mules were sold, yielding a cash turnover of nearly $5 million. These impressive sales figures indicate the continued importance of mules in southern rural economies. The preference for mules over horses in the southern states remained significant, as mules were better suited to the hot climate and demanding work environments. The demand also suggests an adaptation by farmers to use animals where agriculture had yet to become fully mechanized with tractors. Smaller, more agile mules became preferred for their efficiency and ability to meet the changing needs of farmers, as noted by mule merchant Asa Patterson in a 1937 Macon (GA) Telegraph article. Mules, as a form of technology, were bred and adapted over time to better suit the agricultural needs of the era. For example, in earlier decades, heavier mules were in demand to haul transport wagons, but by the 1930s, smaller, lighter mules were better suited to the evolving needs of farmers and industries (Anaconda).

\n\n

The Mule and Horse Market in Atlanta was a significant industry in the city in the late 1800s and early 1900s. While providing a link between Atlanta and surrounding agricultural areas, the market also promoted urbanization and economic expansion. In addition to the direct trade of animals, the demand for draught animals spawned other industries in the city, such as wagons, plows, carriages, and leather goods, including harnesses, bridles, and halters. As America industrialized and modernized, however, the use of mules declined with the rise of tractors and automobiles. Today, the landscape of Atlanta is vastly different from the bustling mule market that once helped drive its economic development.

\n\n

References

\n\n

“Atlanta’s Mule Markets.” Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 16, 1902, p. 6. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/34085595/.

\n\n

“Atlanta Mule Sales Five Times Larger in Last 5 Months.” Chicago Tribune, Jan. 3, 1934, p. 7. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/355182913/.

\n\n

\"Atlanta Stands Second: This City is Next to the Largest Mule and Horse Market in the Country.” The Atlanta Constitution, Mar. 13, 1898. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/atlanta-stands-second/docview/495478276/.

\"Atlanta's Tattersalls.\" Atlanta Constitution, Feb. 16, 1896, p. 6. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/atlantas-tattersalls/docview/495328334/se-2.

\"Auction Sale: Fine Horses Will Be Sold Today at Martin & Bowden's.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 4, 1897. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/auction-sale/docview/495411632/se-2.

\"A Big Sale of Horses: One Hundred and Fifty Horses Auctioned at Brady & Miller's Stable.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 15, 1890. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/big-sale-horses/docview/193979258/se-2.

\"The Equine Waldorf of the South.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 24, 1897, p. 8. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/26975547/.

\"Great Growth of John A. Miller Feed and Sales Stables Gives City of Atlanta Prestige as Horse and Mule Market.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 16, 1902, p. 12. Newspapers.com, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/great-growth-john-miller-feed-sales-stables-gives/docview/495755188/se-2.

\"History of Atlanta.\" Wikipedia. Oct. 7, 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Atlanta.

\"History of the Mule.\" Mule Museum, https://www.mulemuseum.org/history-of-the-mule.html. Accessed Oct. 10, 2024.

\n\n

“Kentucky Horses for Sale: An Auction will be Held This Morning at Brady & Miller’s Stables.” Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 27, 1893. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/docview/193699978.

\n\n

“Mule Trade Brisk,” The Atlanta Constitution, December 16, 1896, p. 9.\nNewspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/26977384.

","

",33.758259942782004,-84.39392966749382,[353,354,355,356],"Entry by Georgia Tech student Jabari Marsland, October 2024.\n\nNear the intersection of Marietta Street and Bartow Street, once stood three stables. Among them were the Brady & Miller Feed & Sales Stables, established in 1881, and Martin & Bowden’s Feed & Sale Stables, in 1897. The designs of these structures incorporated brick and iron to provide strength and fire resistance. The strategic location of these stables—along the tracks of the Western and Atlantic Railroad—helped facilitate trade and distribution throughout the southern states. Atlanta received carloads of mules and horses bred in Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Dealers purchased most of them to sell at retail prices to local sharecroppers and tenant farmers on credit in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. As demands grew, additional stables and stockyards, small and large, emerged within and on the edge of the city, some covering significant acreage. These Atlanta businesses played a major role in the sale and care of mules and horses, contributing to the city's role as a wholesale livestock market from the late nineteenth century into the early twentieth century.\n\nThroughout the southern states, sharecroppers and tenant farmers used mules to plant cotton. “The rapid development of such enterprises as quarrying, lumbering, orchard-making and other pursuits” increased the demand for these draught animals, explained a writer for the Atlanta Constitution on November 16, 1902. Additionally, during World War I, mules were shipped overseas to Britain to aid in transportation efforts in the war. Mule trading was not just an economic activity but also a social spectacle, with intense bidding wars, deals being struck, and sometimes conflicts or tensions arising among traders. The Great Mule Mart Drama of the 1920s was an interesting historical event involving the Atlanta Union Stockyards, in which confidential information concerning local dealers was leaked to the press, and one of the company’s incorporators faced charges of embezzlement.\n\nMules remained vital for agriculture throughout the early to mid-twentieth century. Atlanta’s mule market continued to expand, even amidst the Great Depression. In 1934, the Chicago Tribune reported a dramatic increase in mule sales in Atlanta over five months. During this period, over 38,000 mules were sold, yielding a cash turnover of nearly $5 million. These impressive sales figures indicate the continued importance of mules in southern rural economies. The preference for mules over horses in the southern states remained significant, as mules were better suited to the hot climate and demanding work environments. The demand also suggests an adaptation by farmers to use animals where agriculture had yet to become fully mechanized with tractors. Smaller, more agile mules became preferred for their efficiency and ability to meet the changing needs of farmers, as noted by mule merchant Asa Patterson in a 1937 Macon (GA) Telegraph article. Mules, as a form of technology, were bred and adapted over time to better suit the agricultural needs of the era. For example, in earlier decades, heavier mules were in demand to haul transport wagons, but by the 1930s, smaller, lighter mules were better suited to the evolving needs of farmers and industries (Anaconda).\n\nThe Mule and Horse Market in Atlanta was a significant industry in the city in the late 1800s and early 1900s. While providing a link between Atlanta and surrounding agricultural areas, the market also promoted urbanization and economic expansion. In addition to the direct trade of animals, the demand for draught animals spawned other industries in the city, such as wagons, plows, carriages, and leather goods, including harnesses, bridles, and halters. As America industrialized and modernized, however, the use of mules declined with the rise of tractors and automobiles. Today, the landscape of Atlanta is vastly different from the bustling mule market that once helped drive its economic development.\n\nReferences\n\n“Atlanta’s Mule Markets.” Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 16, 1902, p. 6. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/34085595/.\n\n“Atlanta Mule Sales Five Times Larger in Last 5 Months.” Chicago Tribune, Jan. 3, 1934, p. 7. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/355182913/.\n\n\"Atlanta Stands Second: This City is Next to the Largest Mule and Horse Market in the Country.” The Atlanta Constitution, Mar. 13, 1898. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/atlanta-stands-second/docview/495478276/.\"Atlanta's Tattersalls.\" Atlanta Constitution, Feb. 16, 1896, p. 6. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/atlantas-tattersalls/docview/495328334/se-2.\"Auction Sale: Fine Horses Will Be Sold Today at Martin & Bowden's.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 4, 1897. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/auction-sale/docview/495411632/se-2.\"A Big Sale of Horses: One Hundred and Fifty Horses Auctioned at Brady & Miller's Stable.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 15, 1890. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/big-sale-horses/docview/193979258/se-2.\"The Equine Waldorf of the South.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 24, 1897, p. 8. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/26975547/.\"Great Growth of John A. Miller Feed and Sales Stables Gives City of Atlanta Prestige as Horse and Mule Market.\" Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 16, 1902, p. 12. Newspapers. com, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/great-growth-john-miller-feed-sales-stables-gives/docview/495755188/se-2.\"History of Atlanta.\" Wikipedia. Oct. 7, 2024. https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/History_of_Atlanta.\"History of the Mule.\" Mule Museum, https://www. mulemuseum. org/history-of-the-mule. html. Accessed Oct. 10, 2024.\n\n“Kentucky Horses for Sale: An Auction will be Held This Morning at Brady & Miller’s Stables.” Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 27, 1893. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/docview/193699978.\n\n“Mule Trade Brisk,” The Atlanta Constitution, December 16, 1896, p. 9.\nNewspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/26977384.",[352,17],{"_72":349,"_122":350,"_124":351},[],"Sanborn Fire Insurance Map of Mule and Horse Stables in Atlanta","Detail of Sheet 33, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=43&st=image. This sheet has been combined with sheets 4 and 33. Map is in the public domain.","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/f2x8dq3yfe09yk1qkycryojnnmwf?variant=desktop","new-stop-1726622585905",{"_93":388,"_90":23,"_122":350,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":389,"_141":390,"_35":225,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":349,"_152":-5},{"_93":379,"_90":177,"_122":380,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":381,"_141":382,"_35":132,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":368,"_90":163,"_122":369,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":370,"_141":371,"_35":372,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":373,"_152":-5},{"_93":357,"_90":133,"_122":358,"_135":359,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":360,"_141":361,"_35":176,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":359,"_72":362,"_152":-5},26," The image above is part of a newspaper article promoting the Auction Sale at Martin & Bowden’s Stables. Newspaper articles like these were common throughout the late 1800s to the early 20th century.\n",379,"Screenshot 2024-10-17 131337.png",{"_153":363,"_155":364,"_157":365,"_159":366,"_161":367},"Auction Sale at Martin & Bowden’s Stables","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/8ztmj4svehvu23px8i3z04qfh9ts","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/8ztmj4svehvu23px8i3z04qfh9ts?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/8ztmj4svehvu23px8i3z04qfh9ts?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/8ztmj4svehvu23px8i3z04qfh9ts?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/8ztmj4svehvu23px8i3z04qfh9ts?variant=lqip",20,"The image is an illustration of Martin & Bowden's Mule and Horse stable.","The_Atlanta_Constitution_1897_10_24_Page_8.jpg",{"_153":374,"_155":375,"_157":376,"_159":377,"_161":378},21,"Front View of the Stables of Martin & Bowden","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/26yheyela75kcf7cpesebp6z0mjj","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/26yheyela75kcf7cpesebp6z0mjj?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/26yheyela75kcf7cpesebp6z0mjj?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/26yheyela75kcf7cpesebp6z0mjj?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/26yheyela75kcf7cpesebp6z0mjj?variant=lqip",30,"Photographs of John Miller Feed and Seed Stables. The Atlanta Constitution, Nov. 16, 1902, p. 12. Courtesy of Newspapers.com.","Image1_The_Atlanta_Constitution_1902_11_16_Page_12 (1).jpg",{"_153":383,"_155":384,"_157":385,"_159":386,"_161":387},"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/de4vtgv5cziz9i7px8udimmym9bg","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/de4vtgv5cziz9i7px8udimmym9bg?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/de4vtgv5cziz9i7px8udimmym9bg?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/de4vtgv5cziz9i7px8udimmym9bg?variant=desktop","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/de4vtgv5cziz9i7px8udimmym9bg?variant=lqip",13,"OT_Sanborn_1899_Mule.jpg",{"_153":391,"_155":392,"_157":393,"_159":351,"_161":394},"https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/f2x8dq3yfe09yk1qkycryojnnmwf","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/f2x8dq3yfe09yk1qkycryojnnmwf?variant=mobile","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/f2x8dq3yfe09yk1qkycryojnnmwf?variant=tablet","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/f2x8dq3yfe09yk1qkycryojnnmwf?variant=lqip","manufacturing-cleanliness-exposition-broom-works","Manufacturing Cleanliness: Exposition Broom Works",{"_35":163,"_63":17,"_72":336},{"_35":177,"_63":434,"_72":435},"Centennial Park District, 300 Marietta St NW #304, Atlanta, GA 30313, USA","

Entry by Georgia Tech student Ian Lu, October 2024.

\n\n

The broom is an old and simple tool, and it remains unknown when it was invented. We do know, however, that broom manufacturing changed dramatically in the 19th century. First, farmer Levi Dickinson of Hadley, Massachusetts, discovered that Sorghum vulgare, a species of grass initially used for animal fodder, was a far better material than the twigs usually lashed to broom poles. Within the next few decades, the “broom machine” was adopted to more efficiently tie stalks together with wire. This enabled flat brooms to replace the previous roughly circular bundles, and different varieties of broom. Mass production of brooms was at first centered in the Northeastern United States, but by 1900 Atlanta had also developed into a manufacturing hub.

\n\n

The Exposition Broom Works alone made “120 to 150 dozen brooms a day” as of 1896, with customers all over the southern United States and shipments going as far as Brazil. Their Atlanta competitors included the Logan Broom Company (at one point the largest broom factory in the world) and the Bolton Broom Works. Besides broom corn itself, broom making also required dye and bleach for the stalks, wire to tie them together, and wood for the handles. Sources by people with interests in the broom industry should be taken with a grain of salt, but it is still surprising just how important broom making was considered. Newspapers claimed that broom corn was “a product which is almost as staple as cotton”, or that “the culture of broom corn would surpass in its results that of cotton”. These were bold assertions in the context of 19th-century Georgia, where farmers were searching for alternatives, but cotton remained dominant. It was advertised as easy to grow and versatile—after the seeds were removed, they could still be used as fodder. Writers also repeatedly complained that Atlanta’s broom works were forced to import broom corn from the North and Midwest, despite favorable conditions for the crop in Georgia. This was a typical concern of the “New South”, but with the locations of agriculture and industry reversed. \n

\n\n

To meet broom making’s high labor requirements, manufacturers turned to people who had few other options. Some Atlanta broom factories employed blind people only—what the Atlanta Constitution troublingly described as “persons who were once a liability to the state of Georgia [becoming] an asset.” One factory was even founded by a blind man and funded by the Georgia Association for the Blind. The Bolton Broom Works were built to solve another supposed social problem—women in prison. At the time, society viewed such women as too deviant to work alongside men. Yet, without work they were labeled as “idiotic or insane”. Putting the prisoners in a women-only broom factory made profit for convict lessees and served as a tool of social control.

\n\n

Ironically, the very same processes of technological advancement and competition that brought broom making to Georgia also led to its decline. Broom corn faced competition from plastic-based brooms and then vacuum cleaners, and many of the remaining natural-fiber manufacturers moved to Mexico after the signing of NAFTA. Where the Exposition Broom Works once stood, there are no reminders of a time when Atlanta was a boom town—and a broom town. \n\nReferences\n\n\"A Female Convict Camp: The Women Will Be Employed in Making Brooms at Bolton.\" Atlanta Constitution, Feb. 18, 1890. https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/female-convict-camp/docview/230529198/se-2.\n\n\"An Interesting Sight: The Evolution of Broom Straw From the Field to One of the Most Useful Articles for Housekeepers.\" Atlanta Constitution, Dec. 20, 1896. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/interesting-sight/docview/495350794/se-2. \n \n\"Broom Corn: An Industry in Which There Is Profit, and in Which Georgians Should Engage.\" Atlanta Constitution, Sep. 23, 1882. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/broom-corn/docview/494825116/se-2.

\"Broom Making: The Logan Broom Company and Its Brilliant Success.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 1, 1884. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/broom-making/docview/494908427/se-2.\n\n\"Henry Grady Sells the 'New South.'\" History Matters. Accessed Oct 16, 2024. https://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5745/.\n\nLowder, J. Bryan. “How the Broom Became Flat.” Slate, June 6, 2012. https://slate.com/human-interest/2012/06/broom-history-how-it-became-flat.html.\n\nReynolds Carter, Mary. \"This Factory is Owned and Soley Operated by Blind Men and Women of Atlanta and is Making Good Financially.\" Atlanta Constitution, May 26, 1912. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/this-factory-is-owned-solely-operated-blind-men/docview/496566952/se-2.\n\nRoberts, Adrienne G. \"Factory Gives Employment to the Blind: Miss Frances Hunter Operates Broom and Mop Factory Furnishing Employment for Blind. Thus Giving them Independence and Self Respect Instead of being Liability to the County and State.\" Atlanta Constitution Aug. 04, 1929. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/factory-gives-employment-blind/docview/500529340/se-2. \n\nRobson, L. B. \"Broom Corn: How to Raise It.\" Constitution, Feb. 23, 1876. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/broom-corn/docview/494631261/se-2. \n\nTerrell, Ellen. \"The Convict Leasing System: Slavery in its Worst Aspects.\" Library of Congress Blogs. Accessed Oct. 16, 2024. https://blogs.loc.gov/inside_adams/2021/06/convict-leasing-system/.\n\n\"The Female Convicts: To Be Put All in Once Place and Apart From the Men. In a New Broom Factory To Be Established By The Penitentiary Lessees Near Bolton, In Fulton County.\" Atlanta Constitution, June 5, 1890. ProQuest, https://www.proquest.com/historical-newspapers/female-convicts/docview/194086125/se-2.

",33.76169589026438,-84.39609454047546,[415,416],"Entry by Georgia Tech student Ian Lu, October 2024.\n\nThe broom is an old and simple tool, and it remains unknown when it was invented. We do know, however, that broom manufacturing changed dramatically in the 19th century. First, farmer Levi Dickinson of Hadley, Massachusetts, discovered that Sorghum vulgare, a species of grass initially used for animal fodder, was a far better material than the twigs usually lashed to broom poles. Within the next few decades, the “broom machine” was adopted to more efficiently tie stalks together with wire. This enabled flat brooms to replace the previous roughly circular bundles, and different varieties of broom. Mass production of brooms was at first centered in the Northeastern United States, but by 1900 Atlanta had also developed into a manufacturing hub. \n\nThe Exposition Broom Works alone made “120 to 150 dozen brooms a day” as of 1896, with customers all over the southern United States and shipments going as far as Brazil. Their Atlanta competitors included the Logan Broom Company (at one point the largest broom factory in the world) and the Bolton Broom Works. Besides broom corn itself, broom making also required dye and bleach for the stalks, wire to tie them together, and wood for the handles. Sources by people with interests in the broom industry should be taken with a grain of salt, but it is still surprising just how important broom making was considered. Newspapers claimed that broom corn was “a product which is almost as staple as cotton”, or that “the culture of broom corn would surpass in its results that of cotton”. These were bold assertions in the context of 19th-century Georgia, where farmers were searching for alternatives, but cotton remained dominant. It was advertised as easy to grow and versatile—after the seeds were removed, they could still be used as fodder. Writers also repeatedly complained that Atlanta’s broom works were forced to import broom corn from the North and Midwest, despite favorable conditions for the crop in Georgia. This was a typical concern of the “New South”, but with the locations of agriculture and industry reversed. \n\n\nTo meet broom making’s high labor requirements, manufacturers turned to people who had few other options. Some Atlanta broom factories employed blind people only—what the Atlanta Constitution troublingly described as “persons who were once a liability to the state of Georgia [becoming] an asset.” One factory was even founded by a blind man and funded by the Georgia Association for the Blind. The Bolton Broom Works were built to solve another supposed social problem—women in prison. At the time, society viewed such women as too deviant to work alongside men. Yet, without work they were labeled as “idiotic or insane”. Putting the prisoners in a women-only broom factory made profit for convict lessees and served as a tool of social control. \n\n\n\nIronically, the very same processes of technological advancement and competition that brought broom making to Georgia also led to its decline. Broom corn faced competition from plastic-based brooms and then vacuum cleaners, and many of the remaining natural-fiber manufacturers moved to Mexico after the signing of NAFTA. Where the Exposition Broom Works once stood, there are no reminders of a time when Atlanta was a boom town—and a broom town. \n\nReferences\n\n\"A Female Convict Camp: The Women Will Be Employed in Making Brooms at Bolton.\" Atlanta Constitution, Feb. 18, 1890. https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/female-convict-camp/docview/230529198/se-2.\n\n\"An Interesting Sight: The Evolution of Broom Straw From the Field to One of the Most Useful Articles for Housekeepers.\" Atlanta Constitution, Dec. 20, 1896. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/interesting-sight/docview/495350794/se-2. \n \n\"Broom Corn: An Industry in Which There Is Profit, and in Which Georgians Should Engage.\" Atlanta Constitution, Sep. 23, 1882. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/broom-corn/docview/494825116/se-2. \"Broom Making: The Logan Broom Company and Its Brilliant Success.\" Atlanta Constitution, Oct. 1, 1884. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/broom-making/docview/494908427/se-2.\n\n\"Henry Grady Sells the 'New South.'\" History Matters. Accessed Oct 16, 2024. https://historymatters. gmu. edu/d/5745/.\n\nLowder, J. Bryan. “How the Broom Became Flat.” Slate, June 6, 2012. https://slate. com/human-interest/2012/06/broom-history-how-it-became-flat. html.\n\nReynolds Carter, Mary. \"This Factory is Owned and Soley Operated by Blind Men and Women of Atlanta and is Making Good Financially.\" Atlanta Constitution, May 26, 1912. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/this-factory-is-owned-solely-operated-blind-men/docview/496566952/se-2.\n\nRoberts, Adrienne G. \"Factory Gives Employment to the Blind: Miss Frances Hunter Operates Broom and Mop Factory Furnishing Employment for Blind. Thus Giving them Independence and Self Respect Instead of being Liability to the County and State.\" Atlanta Constitution Aug. 04, 1929. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/factory-gives-employment-blind/docview/500529340/se-2. \n\nRobson, L. B. \"Broom Corn: How to Raise It.\" Constitution, Feb. 23, 1876. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/broom-corn/docview/494631261/se-2. \n\nTerrell, Ellen. \"The Convict Leasing System: Slavery in its Worst Aspects.\" Library of Congress Blogs. Accessed Oct. 16, 2024. https://blogs. loc. gov/inside_adams/2021/06/convict-leasing-system/.\n\n\"The Female Convicts: To Be Put All in Once Place and Apart From the Men. In a New Broom Factory To Be Established By The Penitentiary Lessees Near Bolton, In Fulton County.\" Atlanta Constitution, June 5, 1890. ProQuest, https://www. proquest. com/historical-newspapers/female-convicts/docview/194086125/se-2.",[410,411,412,413,414,395],{"_72":109,"_122":408,"_124":409},[],"Detail of Sheet 30, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=38&st=image&r=-0.786,-0.089,2.381,1.305,0. Map is in the public domain. In this image, sheets 30 and 34 have been pieced together.","https://api.opentour.site/industrial-atlanta/v4/public/media/69vjjyoc1sc2sxbgdoe0fw12gp4h?variant=desktop","new-stop-1726640473434","manufacturing-product","manufacturing-productivity","manufacturing-productivity-southern-fertilizer-company","manufacturing-cleanliness-southern-fertilizer-company",{"_93":94,"_90":427,"_122":408,"_135":136,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":428,"_141":429,"_35":81,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},{"_93":417,"_90":23,"_122":418,"_135":419,"_137":-5,"_138":-5,"_139":420,"_141":421,"_35":379,"_144":145,"_146":147,"_148":-5,"_149":-5,"_150":151,"_72":109,"_152":-5},29,"Blind broom factory workers holding broom corn stalks. The Atlanta Georgian. Oct 26, 1913. 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Entry by Georgia Tech student Luke Miller, October 2024.

\n\n

In the city block made up of Marietta Street, Wallace Street, State Street, and North Avenue is the location where the Georgia Rose Houses once stood, operated by George Hinman. On the other side of town, where Auburn Avenue meets Irwin Street, is the former site of the Rose Bank Greenhouses operated by C. A. Dahl. Both businesses opened in Atlanta in the late nineteenth century and were connected to florist shops within the city. The idea of floriculture originated in Europe and was brought to America through immigrants such as C. A. Dahl, who spent most of his life in Denmark.

\n\n

The growth of floral businesses throughout the southern states was seemingly unheard of. As one reporter for The American Florist stated in 1896, “I was utterly surprised at the strides the business has taken since my last visit to Atlanta some eight years ago.” This same reporter went on to compare the size of Atlanta’s flower business to that of any city of equal size in the North. With the industrialization of the South following Reconstruction, life changed for rural dwellers who sought new opportunities in cities. In the southern United States and elsewhere, urbanization created markets for cut flowers. This new upper class demanded flowers for funerals, social events, and banquets. Many wealthy members of society even wore flowers when attending parties and social gatherings to signify their status and prestige.

\n\n

Flower businesses, such as those of C. A. Dahl and George Hinman, catered to the city's growing urban middle and upper classes and provided a connection to nature amidst an increasingly industrialized environment. Advertisements typically offered a diverse array of flowers and plants being sold. The Atlanta Constitution (January 30, 1898) mentions that Hinman's company not only sold cut flowers but rose trees as well. In many of the advertisements of this time, flowers were not just being sold for bouquets but also to be planted outdoors. These plants represent the desire of Atlanta's residents to have outdoor spaces and gardens flush with seasonal flora. Such advertisements for rose trees, mostly dated from the 1890s to 1910s, might have appealed to residents moving to developing suburban neighborhoods.

\n\n

With the influence of European Victorian ideals, many of the plants found at Dahl’s and Hinman’s greenhouses were exotic and imported from other countries. Carnations—a primary plant sold at this time—are native to the Mediterranean region. While some roses are native to Georgia, many popular types came from China. Plant breeders used roses to develop hybrids and new varieties. During the Victorian era, different types of flowers symbolized different meanings. At a time when Victorian society frowned upon public displays of affection, flowers provided a way to covertly express love and other emotions.

\n\n

Greenhouses popping up on the outskirts of Atlanta provided the space necessary for growing the flowers, while the floral shops in the city connected the market to consumers. These businesses may now be gone, but they had a lasting impact on floriculture in Atlanta and across the United States. Floriculture continued to grow throughout the rest of the 20th century, with a primary example being garden clubs. These clubs were primarily run by women and often played a role beyond just gardening, becoming significant in civic life, social networking, and public beautification efforts. This female leadership also represented a shift in norms for women.

References

The American Florist: A Weekly Journal for the Trade. Vol 11. Part 2. Chicago: American Florist Company, 1896. Biodiversity Heritage Library, https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/80382#page/476/mode/1up.

Barnett, Tonya. \"Victorian Floral Arrangements.\" Gardening Know How. https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/projects/victorian-floral-arrangements.htm.

\"Death of Mr. C.A. Dahl.\" Atlanta Constitution. Sept. 1, 1893, p. 3. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/969471878/.

Flint, Emma. \"The secret Victorian language that's back in fashion.\" BBC. Oct. 12, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20221012-the-flowers-that-send-a-hidden-message.

\"Floriculture.\" Atlanta Constitution. Dec. 20, 1892. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/969359043/?match=1&terms=floriculture.

\"Garden club.\" Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_club.

\"A Growing Business. The C.A. Dahl Co. Are Leaders in Cut Flowers and Floral Arrangements.\" Atlanta Constitution. Jan. 2, 1898. Newspapers.com, https://www.newspapers.com/image/34071995/?match=1&terms=%22c.%20a.%20dahl%22%20death.

Rees, Jonathan. \"Industrialization and urbanization in the United States, 1880-1929.\" Oxford Research Encyclopedia. July 7, 2016. https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-327.

Stott, Romie. \"How Flower-Obsessed Victorians Encoded Messages in Bouquets.\" Atlas Obscura. Aug. 15, 2016. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-flowerobsessed-victorians-encoded-messages-in-bouquets.

Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the society of American Florists, Boston. Society of American Florists and Ornamental Horticulturists. Biodiversity Heritage Library, https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/34853.

The Atlanta\nJournal 9/1/1893 The Atlanta Journal 12/20/1892

The Atlanta Constitution\n1/30/1898

",33.771713813857446,-84.40072627479934,[452,453,454],"Entry by Georgia Tech student Luke Miller, October 2024.\n\nIn the city block made up of Marietta Street, Wallace Street, State Street, and North Avenue is the location where the Georgia Rose Houses once stood, operated by George Hinman. On the other side of town, where Auburn Avenue meets Irwin Street, is the former site of the Rose Bank Greenhouses operated by C. A. Dahl. Both businesses opened in Atlanta in the late nineteenth century and were connected to florist shops within the city. The idea of floriculture originated in Europe and was brought to America through immigrants such as C. A. Dahl, who spent most of his life in Denmark.\n\nThe growth of floral businesses throughout the southern states was seemingly unheard of. As one reporter for The American Florist stated in 1896, “I was utterly surprised at the strides the business has taken since my last visit to Atlanta some eight years ago.” This same reporter went on to compare the size of Atlanta’s flower business to that of any city of equal size in the North. With the industrialization of the South following Reconstruction, life changed for rural dwellers who sought new opportunities in cities. In the southern United States and elsewhere, urbanization created markets for cut flowers. This new upper class demanded flowers for funerals, social events, and banquets. Many wealthy members of society even wore flowers when attending parties and social gatherings to signify their status and prestige.\n\nFlower businesses, such as those of C. A. Dahl and George Hinman, catered to the city's growing urban middle and upper classes and provided a connection to nature amidst an increasingly industrialized environment. Advertisements typically offered a diverse array of flowers and plants being sold. The Atlanta Constitution (January 30, 1898) mentions that Hinman's company not only sold cut flowers but rose trees as well. In many of the advertisements of this time, flowers were not just being sold for bouquets but also to be planted outdoors. These plants represent the desire of Atlanta's residents to have outdoor spaces and gardens flush with seasonal flora. Such advertisements for rose trees, mostly dated from the 1890s to 1910s, might have appealed to residents moving to developing suburban neighborhoods.\n\nWith the influence of European Victorian ideals, many of the plants found at Dahl’s and Hinman’s greenhouses were exotic and imported from other countries. Carnations—a primary plant sold at this time—are native to the Mediterranean region. While some roses are native to Georgia, many popular types came from China. Plant breeders used roses to develop hybrids and new varieties. During the Victorian era, different types of flowers symbolized different meanings. At a time when Victorian society frowned upon public displays of affection, flowers provided a way to covertly express love and other emotions.\n\nGreenhouses popping up on the outskirts of Atlanta provided the space necessary for growing the flowers, while the floral shops in the city connected the market to consumers. These businesses may now be gone, but they had a lasting impact on floriculture in Atlanta and across the United States. Floriculture continued to grow throughout the rest of the 20th century, with a primary example being garden clubs. These clubs were primarily run by women and often played a role beyond just gardening, becoming significant in civic life, social networking, and public beautification efforts. This female leadership also represented a shift in norms for women. ReferencesThe American Florist: A Weekly Journal for the Trade. Vol 11. Part 2. Chicago: American Florist Company, 1896. Biodiversity Heritage Library, https://www. biodiversitylibrary. org/item/80382#page/476/mode/1up. Barnett, Tonya. \"Victorian Floral Arrangements.\" Gardening Know How. https://www. gardeningknowhow. com/garden-how-to/projects/victorian-floral-arrangements. htm.\"Death of Mr. C. A. Dahl.\" Atlanta Constitution. Sept. 1, 1893, p. 3. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/969471878/.Flint, Emma. \"The secret Victorian language that's back in fashion.\" BBC. Oct. 12, 2022. https://www. bbc. com/culture/article/20221012-the-flowers-that-send-a-hidden-message.\"Floriculture.\" Atlanta Constitution. Dec. 20, 1892. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/969359043/?match=1&terms=floriculture.\"Garden club.\" Wikipedia. https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Garden_club.\"A Growing Business. The C. A. Dahl Co. Are Leaders in Cut Flowers and Floral Arrangements.\" Atlanta Constitution. Jan. 2, 1898. Newspapers. com, https://www. newspapers. com/image/34071995/?match=1&terms=%22c.%20a.%20dahl%22%20death. Rees, Jonathan. \"Industrialization and urbanization in the United States, 1880-1929.\" Oxford Research Encyclopedia. July 7, 2016. https://oxfordre. com/americanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-327.Stott, Romie. \"How Flower-Obsessed Victorians Encoded Messages in Bouquets.\" Atlas Obscura. Aug. 15, 2016. https://www. atlasobscura. com/articles/how-flowerobsessed-victorians-encoded-messages-in-bouquets. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the society of American Florists, Boston. Society of American Florists and Ornamental Horticulturists. Biodiversity Heritage Library, https://www. biodiversitylibrary. org/bibliography/34853.The Atlanta\nJournal 9/1/1893 The Atlanta Journal 12/20/1892The Atlanta Constitution\n1/30/1898",[448,449,450,451,434],{"_72":109,"_122":446,"_124":447},[],"Detail of Sheet 18, Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Atlanta, Fulton County, Georgia, 1899. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3924am.g3924am_g013781899/?sp=26&st=image&r=-0.106,-0.058,1.252,1.088,0. 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